BATTERY

In today's world, storage batteries are playing an important role, generally, as a backup/ standby power to many applications.like telecom sector, computer application to protect from data loss, etc.

Battery Chargers are basically automatic D.C. Power Sources meant to feed the connected load and simultaneously charge the connected Battery, thereby maintaining it continuously healthy &ready to feed the load in an emergency situation of A.C.Supply failure. This arrangement ensures an uninterrupted D.C. Supply to the connected load at all times - by the battery Charger in case of A.C. Power Supply availability or by the Battery in case of failure of A.C.Power Supply.Batteries make available this power source for the successful operation of switching and control devices in power protection system.

But the question arises is “do batteries will always operate when needed to operate?” If yes then the battery should be in good condition always so that it can operate during a power failure and it can be maintained through regular inspection, maintenance and testing of batteries.

If regular inspection or testing is not done then there are many things which can actually reduce the working life of a battery, some of these are listed below

·      Absence of proper ventilation

·      Deterioration of connections & Leakage

·      Variation in voltage from cell to cell

·      Battery charger settings

·      . Cell post damage

Testing should be done in accordance to, firstly it ensures that the batteries meet the qualifications of both manufacturer and consumer and secondly it provides a reference point for comparison for future testing.

Here testing can be divided into two subgroups

1.  Performance testing

2.  Qualification  testing

Performance testing provided the data about the present condition of the battery, working voltage, capacity, etc and also provides information about any problem in battery which is required to meet with working of the system.

Qualification testing is done to ensure that the capacity of the battery is sufficient or not to meet the system requirements.

Maintenance requirements involve both periodic maintenance and periodic testing. Maintenance includes visual inspection, checking and restoring electrolyte (water) levels, measuring individual cell specific gravity temperature and voltage readings, cleaning and retorquing terminal connections, etc.

Above mentioned tests require some instruments and they are

1.  Multimeter

2.  Digital hydrometre

3.  megger

4.  Dc load bank

5.  internal resistance testing kit

6.  hydrogen gas  detection kit

Some common methods of battery tests are

1.  Visual inspection- it includes finding location of the crack, leakage, corrosion if any.

2.  Float voltage – check battery should not be grounded at either end, instead, it should float with both ends above the ground.This can be checked easily with the help of voltmeter.

3.  Specific gravity measurement:- this can be measured with the help of hydrometer.The specific gravity of healthy battery should be in the range of 1.19-1.27. Because Specific gravity is a great way to know the battery’s state of charge.

4.  Charging/discharging test- charging/discharging test can be done by knowing the value of current at that instant of time. If the value of current is increasing then it will be the state of charging and vice-versa.

5.  Temperature testing- Temperature of battery should be maintained at a specified level, as the life of battery reduces with increase in temperature. Thermal imaging method I used for finding hot spots inside the battery, which indicates high thermal stress in the battery.

6.  Impedance testing- Impedance of the battery will increase as the battery deteriorates, while conductance decreases.

7.  State of charge (SOC)- it indicates how much of energy is left in a battery.

8.  State of health (SOH)- It measures battery ability to deliver current when required to supply.

STEPPER MOTOR

Stepper motor:-

A stepper motor can be considered as a digital electro-mechanical device where each electrical pulse input results in a movement of shaft by a discrete angle called as step angle of the motor.

                                

                                               Or

Stepper motor is a brushless Dc electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps.

As we all know, industrial motors are used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy but they cant be used for precision positioning of an object or precision control of speed without using closed-loop feedback, that is where stepper motor comes into picture.Stepping motors are ideally suitable for situations where either precise positioning or precise speed control or both are required in the automation system.

A steppers main purpose is to rotate through a precise angler and remains at standstill condition.The speed and torque of the rotation are secondary concerns in stepper motor.Stepper motor rotates through the exact angle and stops. The angle through which the motor turns or shaft moves for each pulse is known as the step angle, expressed in degree, common step angles include 30⁰ ,2⁰,2.5⁰ , etc. At low command pulse rate, the motor moves in steps but when the pulse rate is made sufficiently high because of inertia the rotor moves smoothly, as in case of dc motors.As motor speed is proportional to the rate of command pulses, it can be used for speed control.thus motor is ideally suitable to open loop position and speed control i.e there is no need of feedback sensor.

Let K= step angle(the angle through which the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse)

       Then K= 360/ (no of stator phases * no of rotor teeth)

The stepper motor works on the simple basic principle of magnetic interaction that takes place between the rotor and stator, which makes the rotor move.The rotor has no windings and of salient pole type whereas stator has windings on it.The rotor may or may not have permanent magnets depending upon types of the stepper motor.There is a one-one relationship between an input pulse and step movement of shaft i.e each pulse input actuates one-step movement of the shaft.

Stepper motors are often constructed with a 3-phase stator winding similar to the conventional electrical machines.The rotors are either of the permanent magnet type or the variable reluctance type.Stepper motors are actuated by means of an external drive logic circuit.Series of the pulse voltage is applied to the input of drive circuit and as result it supplies suitable currents to stator windings of the motor to make the axis of magnetic field step around in synchronism with the input pulses.

Stepper motors can be broadly classified into three type:

1.   Variable reluctance stepper motor

2.   Permanent magnet stepper motor

3.   Hybrid type stepper motor

Variable reluctance stepper motor:-

It works on the principle that when a magnetic material placed in a magnetic field experiences a force to align it in minimum reluctance path.

In a variable reluctance motor, excitation of the stator phase gives rise to a torque in a direction which minimizes the magnetic circuit reluctance.The reluctance torque depends upon the square of the phase current and its direction is independent of the polarity of the phase current .this type of motor can be single-stack or multi-stack motor.

Permanent magnet stepper motor:

Permanent magnet stepper motors are widely used in accurate positioning/controlling application due to their small step size.

The stator is of salient pole structure, while rotor shaft consists of a permanent magnet with toothed end caps. The stator poles are provided with windings that are energized sequentially to produce the stepping action.

The major advantage of permanent magnet stepper motor is that it doesn’t require any external exciting current, hence it has low power requirement but possesses high detent torque as compared to variable reluctance stepper motor.this type of motor has high inertia and hence lower acceleration.the step size of this type of motor is relatively large ranging from 30 to 90 as it is difficult to manufacture small permanent magnet rotor with large no of poles.

Hybrid Stepper motor:-

It combines the features of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motor.the direction of its torque depends upon the polarity of stator current.

It has wound stator poles and permanently-magnetized rotor poles.it is best suitable for small angle steps are required, like 1.8 degree,3.1 degrees etc.This type of motor achieves small step sizes easily and with a simpler magnet structure.As compared to variable reluctance motor hybrid motor requires less excitation to achieve a given torque.

Applications:-

Stepper motors are widely used in computer peripherals and office machines.In printer,graph plotter ,floppy/hard disk drives stepper motors are used.stepper motors are also used in Automobiles for closing and opening of glass windows,door latching and wiper movement.

The most common application of stepper motor is a wristwatch, synchronize clocks in railway platforms.

Advantages :-

1.   Highly precise.

2.   Steeper motor can produce high output torques at lower angular velocities.

3.   The angular displacement can b precisely controlled without any feedback arrangement.

4.   No sensor is needed for the position and speed sensing.

ANALOG MULTIMETER

Multimeters as the name suggest meters that used to measure multiple quantities with the same instrument. The most basic multimeters measures voltage, current, and resistance,because it is used for measuring resistance(ohm), current(ampere) and voltage(volt) can be also called as AVO meter.

Multimeters can be divided into two parts,namely Analog multimeters and Digital Multimeter.

Analog Multimeters:-

Analog multimeters were first of its type to be manufactured,but due to latest technological development now it is of less use.However, despite of such developments, its importance can’t be neglected.

Basically ,an analog multimeter is a PMMC meter.Its working principle is based on the d’Arsonval galvanometer principle and measures current,voltage and resistance of any circuit.It consists a needle to indicate the measured value on the scale.Analog multimeter works on the principle that like magnetic poles repel each other.A coil moves in a magnetic field when current passes through the coil.The indicating needle is fastened to the coil.When current passes through the coil,a deflecting torque is produced due to which the coil rotates by some angle and the pointer moves over a graduate scale.A pair of hair springs attached to the moving spindle to provides the controlling torque .In a multimeter ,the galvanometer is left zero-type instrument ,i.e needle rests to the extreme left of the scale.                                     

To measure dc current ,the meter acts as an ammeter with a low series resistance .To measure high current a shunt resistor is connected in such a way that the current flow through the meter is not more than the maximum value .by adding a shunt resistance ,an analog multimeter can be used as milli-ammeter or ammeter.

For dc voltage measurement ,the basic instrument becomes a dc measuring instrument .By adding  a multiplier resistance ,an analog multimeter can measure the voltage from milli-volts to kilovolts and this meter works as millivoltmeter,voltmeter or kilo voltmeter.

By adding a battery and resistance network,this instrument works as ohm-meter.The range of the ohm-meter can be changed by connecting the switch to a suitable shunt resistance.By selecting different values of shunt resistance ,different ranges can be obtained.

Below the basic block diagram of an ammeter is given 

Here we are using two switches namely S₁ and S₂ to select the desired meter. Additional range-selector switches may be used to select individual ranges required in reading amperes,volts, and ohms.

To measure an ac voltage or current by measuring instrument a rectifier is used.

Advantages :

•       All measurements are possible by using one meter only.
•       Increase or decrease in signal levels can be observed.

Disadvantage:

• ·       Analog meters are bulky in size.
• ·       They are heavy and costly .
• ·       The pointer movement is slow ,can’t be used to measure voltages with frequencies greater than 50 HZ.
• ·       Inaccurate due to the effect of earth’s magnetic field.
• ·       They are vulnerable to shock and vibration.